Islam functions as a full race in American and European hierarchies

Evidence

This article has argued that the racialization of Muslims has been well recognized by scholars but the racialization of Islam itself is at the root of this process. To try to accommodate the interplay of Muslims’ racialization with religion, some have referred to Muslim as a “religioracial” identity. Others have stopped short of calling Muslims and Islam a race, preferring the more conservative racialization idea. In spite of the hesitation to name it so, Islam is now race in every meaningful way within the racial hierarchy of United States and Europe. Race as a concept is capacious enough to contain the ethnic, religious, gender, and other 348. — Cyra Akila Choudhury, Racecraft and Identity in the Emergence…, 527

Categorization

• XREF: connects to: People who seem white can be raced non-white on the basis of Islam alone. — Cyra Akila Choudhury, Racecraft and Identity in the Emergence…, 252; Visible phenotype is not required for a group to become racialized — Cyra Akila Choudhury, Racecraft and Identity in the Emergence…, 526; Capitalist imperialism plus liberal societies produced Muslims as a full race — Deepa Kumar, Islamophobia and the Politics of…, 117 (+18 more)

Broader Connections

• European superiority over Muslim empires enabled racial notions of Muslim inferiority #corroborates (0.90) — Khaled A. Beydoun, The New Crusades_ Islamophobia and the…, 1826
• Islam in America operates as a political identity of otherness beyond religion #corroborates (0.90) — Khaled A. Beydoun, American Islamophobia_ Understanding…, 69
• American hierarchy is a racial-religious system with religion as dispositive #corroborates (0.90) — Sahar F. Aziz, The Racial Muslim, 127
• Islam functions as an internal exteriority within Europe’s self-definition #expands (0.85)
• Religious identity functions as a racial marker within American hierarchies #exemplifies (0.85) — Sahar F. Aziz, The Racial Muslim, 71
• Islamophobia operates as entrenched American race politics producing anti-Muslim racism #expands (0.85) — Sahar F. Aziz, The Racial Muslim, 72
• American imperialism, Orientalism, coercive assimilation, and White supremacy jointly produce racialized Muslim categories #expands (0.85) — Sahar F. Aziz, The Racial Muslim, 80
• American Muslims are racially diverse and often identify as white or Asian #complicates (0.85) — Saher Selod, Forever Suspect_ Racialized…, 108
• Islam is ideologically expelled from religion itself in its racialization #expands (0.85) — Sahar F. Aziz, The Racial Muslim, 872
• Islam has shaped the race concept since its historical inception #expands (0.80)
• Islam has functionally become a race in law within the last twenty years #corroborates (0.80) — Cyra Akila Choudhury, Racecraft and Identity in the Emergence…, 34
• Islam shaped African American racial identity formation throughout U.S. history #expands (0.80)
• Muslim identity in America is socially constructed from legacies of slavery and Orientalism #expands (0.80)