Capitalist imperialism plus liberal societies produced Muslims as a full race

Evidence

While Muslims occupied a liminal position between inferior and superior in imperial Spain in the early modern era, this would give way to outright inferiority in the nineteenth century. Thus, while protoracism existed before the nineteenth century, it is capitalist imperialism that sets the terrain on which Enlightenment notions of race were deployed. I argue that two conditions were needed for the production of Muslims as a race: colonial domination and “free” liberal societies. — Deepa Kumar, Islamophobia and the Politics of Empire, 117

Categorization

• XREF: Directly restates and consolidates the ch5/ch6 building block that anti-Muslim racism required both colonial domination and liberal societies professing equality. — connects to: Economic transition to capitalist imperialism produced Muslims as a racial category — Deepa Kumar, Islamophobia and the Politics of…, 83; Modern anti-Muslim racism required both colonial domination and liberal societies professing equality — Deepa Kumar, Islamophobia and the Politics of…, 96; The racialization of Muslims was anchored in Enlightenment-era colonial ideologies — Deepa Kumar, Islamophobia and the Politics of…, 185 (+17 more)

Broader Connections

• Modern anti-Muslim racism required both rights-based societies and imperial domination #corroborates (0.98) — Deepa Kumar, Islamophobia and the Politics of Empire, 193
• Capitalist imperialism’s denial of equality to colonized peoples produced Muslim racialization #corroborates (0.95)
• American imperialism, Orientalism, coercive assimilation, and White supremacy jointly produce racialized Muslim categories #corroborates (0.90) — Sahar F. Aziz, The Racial Muslim, 80
• Islam functions as a full race in American and European hierarchies #expands (0.82) — Cyra Akila Choudhury, Racecraft and Identity in the Emergence…, 527
• Empire produces anti-Muslim racism which in turn sustains empire #expands (0.80)
• European superiority over Muslim empires enabled racial notions of Muslim inferiority #corroborates (0.80) — Khaled A. Beydoun, The New Crusades_ Islamophobia and the…, 1826
• Muslims are racialized as a social group rather than a religious one #expands (0.75)
• Muslims were racialized through cultural signifiers rather than phenotype alone #expands (0.72) — Junaid Rana, Terrifying Muslims, 106
• Orientalism converted Muslim identity from a religion into a race. #qualifies (0.70) — Khaled A. Beydoun, American Islamophobia_ Understanding…, 161