National citizenship was historically assigned and withheld by race

Evidence

Expansionism and economic interest linked “nationbuilding” and domestic labor recruitment to foreign policy and empirebuilding: Not only the “turning of Africa into a warren for the commercial hunting of blackskins” (Marx 1967, 351) but also Indian removal (i.e., ethnic cleansing; genocide) and hemispheric domination (after the 1823 Monroe Doctrine) were established principles by the early 19th century (Gonzalez 2011 [2001}). Internally as well, citizenship was assigned or withheld according to racial criteria. The 14th Amendment notwithstanding, blacks only became citizens ina practical sense in the 1960s, and even then imperfectly; many Asians only achieved naturalization rights in the 1950s; and native peoples only received their citizenship in the 1920s. — Michael Omi, Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States, 86

Categorization

• XREF: Reinforces and dates the reader’s existing claims about citizenship-as-racial-assignment; concrete date anchors for black, Asian, and native citizenship. — connects to: State commissions manufactured ethnic categories and attached graded citizenship rights to them — Charles Tilly, Regimes and Repertoires, 560
• SHARE: The schedule of citizenship dates (blacks 1960s, Asians 1950s, natives 1920s) is a precise nerdy fact worth sending to someone who teaches civics or legal history.