Full anti-Muslim racism required both Enlightenment freedom ideology and European military dominance

Evidence

The rise of Britain and its hegemony in the period of capitalist imperialism gave rise to modern post-Enlightenment forms of anti-Muslim racism. Britain in the early modern era was in no position to dominate the formidable Ottomans, and the Turks were seen as equals if not superior to other European empires. While there were contradictory representations in various spheres, in the political and economic spheres the Turks were respected. A combination of factors changed this attitude, not least among them various revolutions including the Industrial Revolution and the American, French, and Haitian Revolutions, which brought about tumultuous changes ushering in the modern era based ostensibly on equal rights. I argued that two ingredients were necessary for full-blown anti-Muslim racism: the notion of “free” societies and the ability of European nations, like Britain and France, to finally challenge and dominate once powerful Muslim empires. — Deepa Kumar, Islamophobia and the Politics of Empire, 729

Categorization

• XREF: Directly bears on the empire-as-policy claim in Aziz and connects to how US ‘democratic values’ discourse functioned after 9/11 as analogous cover. — connects to: Modern racism against Muslims required European military supremacy over Muslim empires — Deepa Kumar, Islamophobia and the Politics of…, 82; Modern anti-Muslim racism required both colonial domination and liberal societies professing equality — Deepa Kumar, Islamophobia and the Politics of…, 96; Modern anti-Muslim racism required both rights-based societies and imperial domination — Deepa Kumar, Islamophobia and the Politics of…, 193 (+6 more)
• SEED: The ‘two ingredients’ hypothesis is testable against other imperial contexts — could frame an essay on whether a non-European empire (e.g., postcolonial states) could produce full-blown religious racism without the equality rhetoric.

Broader Connections

• Modern racism required first defeating rival Muslim empires #corroborates (0.95)
• European superiority over Muslim empires enabled racial notions of Muslim inferiority #corroborates (0.90) — Khaled A. Beydoun, The New Crusades_ Islamophobia and the…, 1826
• The racialization of Muslims was anchored in Enlightenment-era colonial ideologies #corroborates (0.88) — Deepa Kumar, Islamophobia and the Politics of Empire, 185