European empires colonized Muslim states through loans as well as invasion.

Evidence

By the early twentieth century, much of the Muslim world was subject to European rule, with only a handful of states in the Middle East—Iran, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, and Yemen—escaping European colonial domination as the dust settled from World War I. By the 1930s, Europe, along with its colonies and ex-colonies, constituted almost 85 percent of the earth’s land surface. — Green, Todd H, The Fear of Islam_ An Introduction to…, 175 (#expands, via linked claim)

The turn toward secularization and modernization was spurred on by the spread of capitalism and the encroachment of colonialism on various Muslim empires. In fact, it was only during the era of capitalist development that Islam finally ceased to play a central role in social organization. In response to the loss of their territories to European colonial powers, the Muslim rulers of the Ottoman, Egyptian, and Persian Empires introduced programs of modernization, capitalistic reforms, and Westernization. — Deepa Kumar, Islamophobia and the Politics of Empire, 298 (#responds-to, via linked claim)

Categorization

• XREF: connects to: European economic control over Muslim states preceded and enabled direct colonization; Capitalism and colonialism drove Muslim empires toward secularization — Deepa Kumar, Islamophobia and the Politics of Empire, 298; By the early 1900s nearly all of the Muslim world fell under European rule — Green, Todd H, The Fear of Islam_ An Introduction to…, 175

Broader Connections

• European economic control over Muslim states preceded and enabled direct colonization #corroborates (0.95)
• By the early 1900s nearly all of the Muslim world fell under European rule #expands (0.80) — Green, Todd H, The Fear of Islam_ An Introduction to…, 175
• Capitalism and colonialism drove Muslim empires toward secularization #responds-to (0.75) — Deepa Kumar, Islamophobia and the Politics of Empire, 298