Anti-Muslim discrimination operates institutionally through policies, surveillance, and attacks on worship sites

Evidence

Institutionalized forms of anti-Muslim discrimination, the use of explicit and implicit policies to exclude and subjugate Muslims, is another facet of anti-Muslim discrimination relevant to the Muslim American experience. These institutionalized forms of anti-Muslim discrimination have ranged from bias incidents against Muslim students and employees, attacks on Muslim houses of worship to government surveillance and profiling of Muslims. Research on Muslim American students has revealed encounters with anti-Muslim discrimination (e.g., verbal harassment, negative stereotypes regarding Muslims and Islam) from peers and educators at all levels of the education system, from elementary schools to universities (Aroian, 2012; Nasir & Al-Amin, 2006; Peek, 2003). Mosques, Muslim houses of worship, have been vandalized and bombed across the United States (Phillips, 2018). — Naheed Ahmed, Measurement of Perceived Interpersonal…, 5

Categorization

• DEFINE: Defines institutionalized anti-Muslim discrimination as explicit and implicit policies used to exclude and subjugate Muslims, distinguishing it from interpersonal forms.
• XREF: Connects to the reader’s interest in cross-cultural moral panics over identity signaling (ADDENDUM-adjacent) and to surveillance-state material like We (Zamyatin) and The Reluctant Fundamentalist (Hamid).
• SEED: An essay on the bureaucratic machinery of religious exclusion in America — how profiling migrates from policy documents into everyday institutional life.