The classical Muslim subject emerged from nonstate social structures, not state power

Evidence

Unlike the modern citizen, largely a product of the state, the Muslim subject was produced by nonstate socioethical formations. Fully grounded in social communal structures, and performative in the first degree, these formations are no less potent than Foucault’s discursive formations and biopower, however radically different in their ethical constitution they were. — Wael Hallaq, Restating Orientalism, 161

Categorization

• SEED: An essay angle: comparing two rival theories of subject-production — Foucault’s state-centric biopower vs. Hallaq’s communal socioethical formation — and which better explains how subjects actually become who they are.