No stable traits distinguish leaders from followers or predict effectiveness

Evidence

Broadly speaking, research into leadership can be divided into three phases (Haslam, 2004). In line with the dGreat ManT theory alluded to above (e.g., Carlyle, 1840), the first was characterized by a search for the distinctive intellectual and social characteristics (e.g., intelligence, good judgement, insight and imagination) which set leaders apart from followers and which make them inherently more adept at directing, influencing and inspiring others. Nowadays such theories have few academic adherents. There is simply no reliable evidence of any traits which either distinguish leaders from non-leaders or which predict leadership effectiveness (e.g., Jenkins, 1947; Mann, 1959; Nadler & Tushman, 1990; Sherif & Sherif, 1953; Steiner, 1972; Stogdill, 1948). However, even if one cannot identify leaders by their characters, there is better evidence that it may be possible to do so by their actions. For instance, Fleishman et al. (Fleishman, 1953; Fleishman & Peters, 1962, see also Bowers & Seashore, 1966) showed that effective leaders display (a) consideration for the interests and welfare of followers and (b) initiation of structure—that is, a capacity to structure the activities of followers with a view to achieving group goals. — Stephen Reicher, S. Alexander Haslam, and Nick Hopkins, Social identity and the dynamics of…, 27

Categorization

• DEFINE: Establishes the two classic behavioral dimensions of leadership — consideration and initiation of structure — that later work would build upon.
• XREF: connects to: Charisma is conferred on leaders by followers rather than held as a trait — Stephen Reicher, S. Alexander Haslam, and Nick Hopkins, Social identity and the dynamics of…, 33; Leader popularity stems from leader-follower congruence while greatness stems from leader traits — John T. Jost and Jim Sidanius, Political Psychology: Key Readings, 1361; Leader appeal depends on leader-follower trait matching while performance reflects enduring traits. — John T. Jost and Jim Sidanius, Political Psychology, 1366 (+11 more)

Broader Connections

• Follower compliance tracks how well a leader embodies the group prototype #corroborates (0.88) — Roderick M. Kramer, Geoffrey J. Leonardelli, Robert W. Livingston, Social Cognition, Social Identity, and…, 1765
• Charisma is conferred on leaders by followers rather than held as a trait #corroborates (0.85) — Stephen Reicher, S. Alexander Haslam, and Nick Hopkins, Social identity and the dynamics of…, 33
• Leaders are accepted only when embodying features shared with followers #corroborates (0.85) — Ernesto Laclau, On Populist Reason, 153
• Leader appeal depends on leader-follower trait matching while performance reflects enduring traits. #complicates (0.82) — John T. Jost and Jim Sidanius, Political Psychology, 1366
• Leaders lack direct power; followership grants them agency. #corroborates (0.82) — Stephen Reicher, S. Alexander Haslam, and Nick Hopkins, Social identity and the dynamics of…, 103
• Leader popularity stems from leader-follower congruence while greatness stems from leader traits #complicates (0.80) — John T. Jost and Jim Sidanius, Political Psychology, 1361
• Followers’ expectations script and constrain would-be charismatic leaders #corroborates (0.80) — Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, Righteous Discontent, 1694
• Leadership acts on followers through collective group norms, not just individual exchange #corroborates (0.80) — Stephen Reicher, S. Alexander Haslam, and Nick Hopkins, Social identity and the dynamics of…, 34
• Leadership must be understood as a group process rather than a leader-follower dyad #corroborates (0.80) — Stephen Reicher, S. Alexander Haslam, and Nick Hopkins, Social identity and the dynamics of…, 35
• A spellbinding leader’s identity analogies succeed only when followers co-develop them #corroborates (0.78) — Stephen Reicher, S. Alexander Haslam, and Nick Hopkins, Social identity and the dynamics of…, 113
• Coordination behind a leader generates trust because followers can withdraw support #corroborates (0.78)
• Followers transform leader identity into commitment mainly through emotional attachment, not categorization #corroborates (0.78) — Roderick M. Kramer, Geoffrey J. Leonardelli, Robert W. Livingston, Social Cognition, Social Identity, and…, 1863
• Leadership rests on reciprocal imitation, each following because others follow #corroborates (0.75) — Niklas Luhmann, Trust and Power, 738
• Leadership derives from reciprocal imitation that frees the leader from individual obedience demands #corroborates (0.75)