Theories use concepts, while data contain only indicators needing transformation.

Evidence

The key point of this introductory example is to illustrate the nature of semantic transformations and the linking of a raw indicator or data such as years of education with the concept of theoretical importance, which is “educated.” Note that theories and hypotheses use the concept of “educated,” not the indicator “years of education.” Semantic transformations are ways to link concepts that are used in theories, hypotheses, and causal mechanisms with raw data and indicators that do not themselves appear in the theoretical apparatus. — Gary Goertz, Social Science Concepts and Measurement, 602

Categorization

• DEFINE: Defines ‘semantic transformation’ as the bridge linking raw indicators to the concepts actually used in theories and causal mechanisms.
• XREF: Connects to measurement-validity debates in your earlier reading on how indicators operationalize latent constructs (e.g. social capital essay’s unanalyzed placeholder).