Ordeals emerged where evidence-gathering mechanisms were unavailable to judges

Evidence

This was a time, of course, without DNA testing, phone records, security cameras, or even reliable eyewitness testimony. Judges had few mechanisms at their disposal to examine evidence or establish motive or opportunity. Therefore, in difficult cases, they ordered a trial by ordeal. A cauldron of water was boiled, and a piece of red-hot iron rod or burning stone thrown into it. The accused was then commanded to prepare to insert her hand and arm into the boiling water and retrieve it. If her flesh was unscathed, she was declared innocent. Otherwise, she was guilty. In another variant, the naked, bound defendant was thrown into a deep pool of holy water. If the defendant sank, he was condemned. If he floated, he was a free man. — Norenzayan, Ara, Big gods - how religion transformed…, 61

Categorization

• XREF: Parallels the reader’s analytical work: like the Japanese authorities lacking evidentiary tools against hidden priests, medieval judges needed a knowledge-extraction mechanism, foreshadowing the fumi-e public test.