Online and offline anti-Muslim attacks form a multidimensional linked relationship

Evidence

Based on the first national hate crime study to examine the nature, extent and determinants of Muslim victims of hate crime in the virtual and physical worlds, it highlights the multidimensional relationship between online and offline anti-Muslim attacks, especially in a global context. — Irene Zempi and Imran Awan, Islamophobia, 501

Categorization

• QUESTION: What mechanisms link an online attack to an offline one, and does the link run both directions?