Knowledge flow reversed from Islamic to Western centers by 1800.

Evidence

In the Middle Ages, there were European scholars and students who went to what were then the great Arab Muslim universities in Spain and in Sicily. But that came to an end, and those who had been students became teachers. Those who had been teachers should have become students, but it took them some time to realize that fact. … Finally they did, and from the beginning of the nineteenth century, increasing numbers of students traveled from the Middle East to the West. Usually they went in student missions, groups of students sent by their governments to study in western countries. The Pasha of Egypt, the Sultan of Turkey, the Shah of Iran, all sent such missions; and, as one can readily imagine, this created considerable problems. — Bernard Lewis, From Babel to Dragomans, 742

Categorization

• XREF: Feeds the Islam-West representation cluster: the directional reversal of scholarly pilgrimage is the prehistory of how the region became an object of Western study.