Ethnic and religious exclusion now outpaces biological racism as global conflict axes.

Evidence

Secondly, there are many more situations in the world where ethnicity rather than “race” has provided the focus of violent exclusionary conflict (e.g., Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Rwanda, Bosnia, and Kosovo). Thirdly, there has been a significant rise in discrimination and exclusion either based on religion or with a strong religious component (Richardson 1999), in particular against Muslim communities, related to the worldwide politicization of Islam. Some writers feel that a multiculturalism focused on biological racism rather than cultural differentialism ignores this religious dimension (e.g., Modood et al. 1997). — Stuart Hall, Essential Essays, Volume 2, 343

Categorization

• XREF: Importantly, this passage states the ‘ethnicity not race’ and anti-Muslim turn that the Islamophobia readings build on — directly central to the reader’s stated module.