Thirteenth-century Christian art mapped Muslims onto Jews as Jerusalem slipped from Christian control.

Evidence

If it is true that the model for the headscarf is Muslim—something that at this stage must remain at the level of speculation—then we can conclude that in the thirteenth century the pictorial identification of Jew and Muslim was already on its way. If so, then the headscarf rather than the turban announces the Islamization of the Holy Land in the Western Christian imagination, and the development needs to be located in the thirteenth century. The date would not be surprising. In 1187 Salah ud-Din (Saladin) reconquered Jerusalem and after that, with the brief interludes of 1229–39 and 1243–44, the city was to remain in Muslim hands until the twentieth century. Though Crusader rhetoric raged for a few hundred years more, Christian art betrays that Europeans slowly began to give up the idea of a Christian Jerusalem. — Ivan Davidson Kalmar, Derek Penslar, Orientalism and the Jews, 169