Schools punished Spanish speakers by marking them as non-American

Evidence

In Urban Exile, Harry Gamboa, Jr. notes that a subject that is linguistically marked and ranked evokes a nationality other than “American.” He recalls that his first art lesson in an East Los Angeles elementary school consisted of “cutting and pasting a dunce cap out of construction paper, onto which the teacher wrote the letters, ‘S-P-A-N-I-S-H’” (Noriega, 1998:14), forcing him to embody a tongue that supposedly impedes his advancement in US society. — David Theo Goldberg, John Solomos, A Companion to Racial and Ethnic Studies, 2502

Categorization

• QUESTION: Could look for primary accounts of this specific ‘SPANISH dunce cap’ practice to verify how widespread it was.
• SEED: Angle: how public humiliation rituals enforce linguistic nationalism in US classrooms, from dunce caps to modern ‘English only’ policies.
• XREF: connects to: Monolingual Spanish residents were excluded by an untranslated environmental review — Luke W. Cole and Sheila R. Foster, From the Ground Up: Environmental…, 72