Pan-Turkish nationalism was built by Russian-educated exile Tatars reacting against pan-Slavism

Evidence

These exiles from Russia were usually people of a high standard of education; some of them had been through Russian high schools and universities. They were acquainted with the very considerable achievements of Russian Turcology; they had encountered and reacted against the pan-Slav movement and mystique. At the same time they were familiar with the new national ideas current among some circles in the Ottoman Empire. Tatar intellectuals, led by the Crimean Ismail Gasprinski or Gaspiralı (1841–1914) began a new political pan-Turkish movement, the ideas of which were disseminated in Turkey by men like Ak­ churaoghlu Yusuf (1876–1933) and Agaoghlu Ahmed (1869–1939). Foremost among the pioneers of this new nationalism was Ziya Go¨kalp (1875–1924) who, in a series of important historical and sociological works, laid the intellectual foundations of the Turkist movement. — Bernard Lewis, From Babel to Dragomans, 2017

Categorization

• XREF: Shows nationalism as a mirror-response to a rival imperial movement (pan-Turkism copying/answering pan-Slavism) — corroborates Anderson’s modular nationalism thesis and general claims that nationalist forms travel via empire.
• QUESTION: The mechanism here is remarkable: Ottoman Turkish nationalism originated substantially from Russians, not Turks. How generalizable is this ‘nationalism outsourced to diasporic/educated exiles’ pattern?