Medieval Christian writers described the hajj through distorted relic-and-stoning imagery.

Evidence

Muhammad also taught them that every year they should betake themselves to the House of God, which is in the city of Mecca, to pray and give thanks, and that they should make the circuit of it, wearing seamless garments; and should throw stones between their trouser-legs, to roll over the pavement of the House, so that as they say, the demon should be stoned by them. — Norman Daniel, Islam and the West, 1213

Categorization

• ADDENDUM: This shows how ritual practices of the religious Other get garbled through the observer’s own frame — parallel to how moral panics over ‘immodest’ dress distort reported behavior.