European raids were piracy, not coordinated Muslim conquest.
Evidence
These incursions were not a uniļ¬ed effort to conquer Europe. The Muslim world was increasingly fragmented, both politically and religiously, and these raids by pirates and fortune-seekers were the fruits of individual ambition and greed, not of a coordinated Muslim expansion. ā John V. Tolan, Saracens, 428
Categorization
- XREF: Connects to the revisionist claim in the Spanish Armada book that decisive campaigns ride on contingent, uncoordinated forces rather than unified strategy.