By 1291 crusading and missionary conversion efforts had comprehensively failed

Evidence

Over the course of the century, five major Crusades are undertaken, and scores of Franciscan and Dominican missionaries, many of them trained in Arabic, ventured to Muslim lands in Spain, North Africa, and the Levant. Yet by the end of the century these hopes were dashed. Crusade after Crusade failed, and the missionaries found that their exemplar piety and theological subtlety were not able to convince many Muslims to convert. In 1291 the Mamluk sultan al-Ashraf Khalîl took Acre, the last crusader outpost on the mainland, and in 1295 the Mongol Il- Khanid khan Ghazan converted to Islam, ending the (rather unrealistic) Christian hopes that he would convert to Christianity. — John V. Tolan, Saracens, 1092

Categorization

• XREF: Gives the concrete endpoint dates that anchor the vault’s narrative of Islam-West enmity hardening at the close of the thirteenth century.